Table 7 Targets for modulation of established secondary hyperalgesia in humans.

Stimulus-induced hyperalgesia

Opioid receptors

alfentanil

agonist

X

transdermal electric

X

only ongoing and evoked pain

[176]

[263]

alfentanil

agonist

X/0

capsaicin

n/a

n/a

[250–252]

n/a

remifentanil

agonist

X

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[189]

n/a

morphine

agonist

0

burn

n/a

n/a

[253]

n/a

buprenorphine

Partial agonist-

antagonist

XX

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[254]

n/a

COX

paracetamol, parecoxib

COX/COX2 inhibition

XX

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[259]

n/a

ibuprofen

COX inhibition

0

burn

n/a

n/a

[260]

n/a

Na ⁺ channels, systemic

lidocaine

antagonist

XX

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[176]

n/a

lidocaine

antagonist

X

capsaicin

X

only evoked pain

[256]

[263]

lamotrigine

antagonist

0

heat/capsaicin

n/a

n/a

[223]

n/a

General anaesthesia

propofol

X

transdermal electric

n/a

[262]

n/a

Adenosine receptors

adenosine

agonist

X

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[261]

n/a

Descending

inhibition

venlafaxine

noradrenaline/5-HT reuptake inhibitor

n/a

n/a

X

evoked pain + area

n/a

[267]

NMDAR

ketamine

antagonist

X

burn

X

ongoing and evoked pain + area

[250, 253, 255, 256]

[263, 265]

ketamine

antagonist

X/0

capsaicin

n/a

n/a

[250–252, 256]

n/a

S-ketamine

antagonist

XX

transdermal electric

n/a

n/a

[176]

n/a

dextro-methorphan

antagonist

X

burn

n/a

n/a

[257]

n/a

VGCC

gabapentin

modulation at

α₂δ-subunit

X

heat/capsaicin

X

n/a

[258]

n./a